Understanding the APA Style of Writing for Ease of Use
By Jonathan Holden The recording of research in the field of psychology involves a very strict code that sets itself apart from other common documentation styles. The American Psychological Association (APA) has put forth a Publication Manual that focuses on the documentation of scientific research in a psychology report. Consequently, wording may appear terse and unfeeling, which a university student may have difficulty reading through if they are more comfortable with more verbose styles. It can be even more daunting for a student with no previous APA writing experience to be given an APA assignment, given the marked differences from other styles such as the more familiar Modern Language Association style (MLA). How, then, does a student find a way past the fear of using APA as a writing format? Additionally, since there is no “student manual” of the APA style, what help can students use to assist them when required to write in APA? As we defuse the problems that students have with APA style, let us first discuss why the American Psychology Association initially established the standards found in the Publication Manual. A Brief History of APA APA began as an effort by psychological journalists and publishers to make sure submissions were consistent in format and layout, making publication more efficient and reliable. The format was further developed to allow other readers in the field of psychology to evaluate documented research. As Charles Bazerman explains, APA style developed “at the same time as the behaviorist program began to dominate experimental psychology” (259). Therefore, one can see the focus on empirical data presented in regard to many of the rules of the style developed for the publication process and the manuscript construction process. Susan Mueller, of St. Louis College of Pharmacy, says (in the January, 2005, edition of The Writing Lab Newsletter) APA style, “as a product of a social science, values current information and focuses on the experimental/content of what it documents” (9). She also explains that “APA style arose out of the concerns a group of anthropological and psychological journal and managers, about the uniformity and reliability of the articles they received” (7). When the style was first defined, its audience was based in the field of psychology, but its reader base expanded throughout the years until it is now used widely throughout the social sciences (Scutley and VandenBos xvi). With the evolution of the style over the years, it is easy to see how the format can be daunting for many students. As the style evolves, it diverges widely in some aspects from other styles, with more changes added to each new Publication Manual released. Since MLA is the documentation style most students are familiar with, let us examine some of these differences between APA and MLA. Differences between APA and MLA One noticeable difference in APA from most other documentation styles is the required addition of an abstract. An abstract is a “brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the article; it allows the reader to and retrieve it from abstracting and indexing databases” (APA 25-26). According to Dr. Jennifer Rockett of the University of Texas in the Permian Basin (UTPB), this allows a reader to quickly glance through “thousands of articles and evaluate them quickly, what they did and found, and the implications their research,” making it possible to efficiently find relevant material for research. Since plagiarism is a major concern in writing scientific research reports and case studies, APA also has rules as to how to present quotations—even when the paper refers to the writer’s own prior work (APA 16). Documenting sources within the body of the work is one of the key features of APA style. APA uses fewer types of source citation and documentation than MLA. APA uses sixteen models (or specific guidelines pertaining to type of citation) of in-text citations encapsulated in parenthesis to cite sources, whereas MLA uses nearly twenty different models. The cited works listed after the body of an APA paper are composed using one of seventy-five different models of crediting work. This is, again, in contrast to MLA, which uses ninety-six models of requirements (Troyka and Hesse 589-683). Some other major differences in APA from MLA are that: : Transitions, thesis development and support, flow, not to mention conclusions, do not apply APA style and it excludes normal prose. . . . The focus is on the experiment and its results, not on the reader and not on the experience of the writer/social scientist. . . . APA style discourages the use of the first person. . . . Time and its passage matter in APA. . . . In MLA, it doesn’t, at least in theory. (Mueller 7) MLA style gives less importance than APA to date and time for the purpose of establishing authenticity because MLA recognizes academic work and critical scrutiny to be timeless. APA, on the other hand, considers the date important because the field of psychological research is more collaborative, with researchers building on each other’s research (Mueller 7). This issue is then reflected in the format of the styles, with MLA excluding the date in the citations in the body of the article and focusing instead on the author and the location of the reference found in the source listed in the works cited list, and APA including date in citations inserted in the body of the article without regard to page numbers. Another issue in the past has been how many spaces should an APA paper have between sentences—a hot debate in both the APA and the MLA communities. The issue began over the monospaced typesetting of typewriters, which caused sentence structure to appear uneven when formatted without double-spacing between sentences after punctuation. With the advent of better typesetting technology, the problem is no longer an issue. However, because so many have become accustomed to using the “rule” over a long period of time, a clamor has arisen between those who advocate the use of a single space and the those for the use of two spaces (Manjoo). To remedy this conflict, APA allows the consistent use of both in its documentation format. With so many changes made to APA style over the years and so many differences between APA and other styles, how does a student find confidence in writing with this format? If efficiency is the goal of APA, then why is it so difficult for students, at times, to master it? Since APA style is a highly organized format, the problem may lie in the organization skills of the student. Therefore, what can a student do to prepare for an APA documentation style writing project? An APA Writing Process Rockett describes the best way to introduce a student to the process of writing a successful paper in APA format. The first thing she admonishes is the need to research relevant journal articles that deal with the subject the student is writing about. “APA is all about how you word things,” she says, “and social scientists don’t want to look like idiots.” To do this successfully, it is important to develop a research process for outlining useful information. Rockett recommends a process of writing using “article summaries” that highlight pertinent information concerning the reference material. Grouping facts into itemized lists per article, the student is able to create a “summary sheet,” an outline that allows information and quotes to be easily located, referenced, and organized according to journal article. To guard against plagiarism, she advises students that summary entries should include quotes that are stated verbatim and given quotation marks. This serves as a reminder to either use the quote directly and cite the source, or rewrite the quote by wording it differently. Since the purpose of the research paper is to present the author’s research, Rockett explains that “direct quotes are rarely used if at all APA style, and only in cases where the source is specific enough to prevent paraphrasing.” If quotes are needed for use in a research paper, Rockett says to “cite others to make sure to give credit where credit is due.” As the information is transcribed from the summary sheet to the draft, each article summary is marked off as having been included. Now that a process for writing APA has been established, the student can begin assimilating the information into a draft. Since APA style’s focus is to minimize superfluous content, what can a student do when adapting the draft of a paper to APA standards? Keeping It Simple It is important when writing a report in APA that writers avoid language that is flowery in substance (such as is commonly used in MLA style). This can actually be an advantage in using APA over MLA. According to Rockett, writing in APA style allows the facts of the research to be “even in tone, precise, and concisely” presented. What Rockett finds disconcerting is that there are “no guides MLA to be concise.” Similarly, Dr. Rebecca Babcock of UTPB’s English and Literature department uses the term “fluff” to describe MLA writing. Babcock recommends APA style, as well, for its clear and succinct tone and conveyance—even preferring APA style to MLA or Chicago Style. APA includes visual images representative of data gathered by the researcher. If a picture is worth a thousand words, then images are very instrumental in APA style writing to minimize extraneous word usage. “Tables displaying data supplants written data,” and the “way data is presented is dependent on the statistics gathered” (Rockett). See APPENDIX A for examples of tables defining the meaning of data used in a research project. APA style also makes use of graphical representation of data, using visual imagery to correlate findings. This assists in supporting the hypothesis to the reader by displaying quantities in a format that is easily interpreted. See APPENDIX B for an example of a graphical representation of data used to display the implications of the associated statistics. With the use of such visual and graphical representations, the reader can follow the logical discussion of the paper and understand the reasoning behind the conclusions of the authors. This is just another way that APA uses concise structure to minimize the amount of textual information to prove a point. Given the oversight that is required in the presentation of research and data in APA style, it is apparent that the format is much stricter in some sense to other styles. Therefore, how does a university student find resources to assist in writing in this style? Let us consider some professional recommendations. APA Made Easier Unlike other writing style guidelines, there is no official student version of the Publication Manual. Therefore, the Manual is aimed at professionals in the field of psychology. What does a student need, then, to acclimate to a professional structure of writing? Both Rockett and Babcock recommend reading the Publication Manual, as there is a comprehensive wealth of information to be found concerning documentation in APA style. “Just read the book” (Rockett). Alternatively, they also recommend—for those that are having difficulty—to supplement their reading with guides (both electronic and in print) that assist in writing scientific and/or academic journals and essays, such as Publishing Your Psychological Research, by Dennis McInerney, Writing Your Journal in 12 Weeks, by Wendy Belcher, or the especially recommended How to Write a Lot, by Paul Silva, published by the APA. Babcock also recommends using the APA Style Blog online resource as an aid to understanding APA. The blog showcases both submitted and frequently asked questions answered by experts in the field, for instance, whether or not you can cite personal life experience in an academic paper (Lee par. 2). Mueller also notes that “APA has no separate publication for students. The Publication Manual is it; students are welcome visitors, but they are not the main audience” (7). However, the APA manual is receptive to academia and invites constructive criticism that would allow those new to the field to find transition easier. The fact that the American Psychological Association use feedback for implementing changes that improve understanding means that the APA is eager to minimize struggle and confusion in mastering the style. With the veil of confusion lifted concerning using APA documentation, let us consider the implications of studying the APA style of writing. APA Demystified As a concise form of communication and an efficient method of conveyance of data, the APA style is straightforward. Students can be assured that, as formidable as the style may seem, it is really just a clear-cut method of communication without extraneous structure. The style uses fewer guidelines concerning citation, and data can be represented graphically to display meaning. Additionally, titled sections can be written distinctly from each other without having “to establish overt transitions and continuity,” (Bazerman 260). With such advantages to writing in APA, a student need not fear it and may even come to prefer it over other documentation styles. Works Cited *American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 6th ed. Washington: APA, 2010. Print. *Babcock, R. PhD. Personal Interview. 29 April 2011. *Bazerman, C. “Codifying the Social Scientific Style: The APA Publication Manual as a Behaviorist Rhetoric.” Shaping Written Knowledge: The Genre and Activity of the Experimental Article in Science. Madison: U of Wisconsin UP, 1988. 257-277. Print. *Belcher, W. L. Writing Your Journal Article in 12 Weeks: A Guide to Academic Publishing Success. Thousand Oaks: SAGE, 2009. Print. *Lee, C. “Can You Cite Personal Life Experience?” APA Style. 28 Apr. 2011. Web. 4 May 2011. *Manjoo, F. “Space Invaders: Why You Should Never, Ever Use Two Spaces after a Period.” Slate.com. 13 January 2011. Web. 29 April 2011. *McInerney, D. Publishing Your Psychological Research: A Guide to Writing for Journals in Psychology and Related Fields. Crow’s Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin, 2001. Print. *Mueller, S. “Documentation Styles and Discipline-Specific Values.” The Writing Lab Newsletter. St. Louis: St. Louis C of Pharmacy P, 2005. 7-9. Web. 22 April 2011. *Rockett, J. PhD. Personal Interview. 8 April 2011. *Rockett, J. PhD, D. C. Murrie, and M. T. Boccaccini. “Diagnostic Labeling in Juvenile Justice Settings: Do Psychopathy and Conduct Disorder Findings Influence Clinicians?” Psychological Services 4.2. Washington: APA, 2007. 112-115. Print. *Sylvia, P. How to Write a Lot: A Practical Guide to Productive Academic Writing. Washington: APA, 2007. Print. *Troyka, L. Q. and D. Hesse. Handbook for Writers. 9th ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson, 2009. Print. *VanderBos, G. and M. Skutley. “Preface.” Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 6th ed. Washington: APA, 2010. xv-xvi. Print. APPENDIX A (Rockett 112) (Rockett 116) APPENDIX B (Rockett 115)